17.4. Compound Tenses of the Past
17.4.1. What Are Compound Tenses?
A compound tense is a tense that combines an auxiliary verb (also known as a "helping verb") with a main verb.
Neolatin has two types of compound tenses:
- Perfect tenses (These use the auxiliary verb "havere" or "èssere")
- Progressive tenses (These use the auxiliary verb "estare")
The most common compound tenses are perfect tenses.
Below is the formula for a perfect compound tense:
[Conjugated form of the auxiliary verb "havere" or "èssere"] + Past participle
To illustrate the idea, think of the phrase "I have done something". This is an example of the present perfect tense in English, where "to have" is the auxiliary verb and "done" is the past participle of the verb "to do".
17.4.2. Past Participles
A past participle is a word derived from the infinitive form of a verb that has several key uses:
- As an adjective (descriptive adjectives or adjectives in the passive voice)
- As a noun
- For compound verb tenses
To form regular past participles, follow the patterns below:
- Drop the -are ending and add -ato: parlare ➜ parlato
- Drop the -ere ending and add -uto: tenere ➜ tenuto
- Drop the -ire ending and add -ito: venire ➜ venito
Keep in mind that although Neolatin and Romance languages have irregular past participles, it is acceptable to only use regular past participles in Neolatin. However, some users may want to sound more natural or learn to better understand certain Romance languages. Find various irregular past participles below.
17.4.3. Irregular Past Participles
Generally Irregular
These past participles are generally irregular in Romance languages.
| GROUP | PAST PARTICIPLE | VERBS IN SAME GROUP | RESPECTIVE PAST PARTICIPLES |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dícere | Dicto | - Predícere - Contradícere - Benedícere | - Predicto - Contradicto - Benedicto |
| Escrívere | Escripto | - Descrívere - Inscrívere | - Descripto - Inscripto |
| Fàcere | Facto | Satisfàcere | Satisfacto |
| Méttere | Messo | - Perméttere - Prométtere - Comprométtere | - Permesso - Promesso - Compromesso |
| Pónere | Pòsto | - Compónere - Expónere | - Compòsto - Expòsto |
| Vedere | Visto | Provedere | Provisto |
| Verbs ending in -rire (Aprire, Coprire, Offerire) | - Apèrto - Copèrto - Offèrto | Descoprire - Soffrire | - Descopèrto - Soffèrto (Italian, Catalan, French, Old Spanish) |
| Verbs in -gere (Júngere, Empéngere, Estréngere, Frígere) | - Junto - Empinto - Estrecto - Fritto | - Ajjúngere - Restríngere | - Ajjunto - Restrecto |
Sometimes Irregular
These past participles are irregular in only some Romance languages.
| GROUP | PAST PARTICIPLE | VERBS IN SAME GROUP | RESPECTIVE PAST PARTICIPLES | LANGUAGE(S) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rómpere | Ropto | Corrómpere | Corropto | Italian, Spanish |
| Vívere | Vixuto | Soprevívere | Soprevixuto | Italian, Catalan, French |
| Tràgere | Tracto | - Distràgere - Contràgere | - Distracto - Contracto | Italian, Catalan, French |
| Verbs ending in -fóndere | -fuso | - Confóndere - Diffóndere | - Confuso - Diffuso | Italian, Catalan, French |
| Sòlvere | Sòlto | - Resòlvere - Absòlvere | - Resòlto - Absòlto | Italian, Spanish, Catalan |
| Verbs in -dere 1 (Divídere, Pèrdere, -clúdere, -cídere) | - Diviso - Pèrso -cluso -ciso | - Condivídere - Subdivídere - Inclúdere - Conclúdere - Occídere - Clàudere | - Condiviso - Subdiviso - Incluso - Concluso - Occiso - Clauso | Italian, French, Catalan (only -clúdere), Romanian (only "occídere") |
| Prèndere | Preso | - Apprèndere - Sorprèndere | - Appreso - Sorpreso | Italian, French |
| Cèdere | Cèsso | - Concèdere - Accèdere | - Concèsso - Accèsso | Italian |
| Mòto (Latin) / Mòsso (Unknown origin) | Mòto | Remòvere | Remòto | Italian |
| Córrere | Corso | - Occórrere - Recórrere | - Occorso - Recorso | Italian |
| Verbs in -dúcere | -ducto | - Prodúcere - Tradúcere - Redúcere - Condúcere | - Producto - Traducto - Reducto - Conducto | Italian |
| Víncere | Vinto | Convíncere | Convinto | Italian |
| Verbs in -dere 2 (Rídere, Explòdere) | - Riso - Explòso | - Sorrídere - Implòdere | -Sorriso -Implòso | Italian |
| Légere | Lècto | - Elégere - Escollégere -Protègere - Corrègere | - Elècto - Escollècto - Protècto - Corrècto | Italian |
| Verbs in -èndere (Accèndere, Defèndere, Entèndere) | - Accènso - Defeso/Defenso - Enteso | - Offèndere - Suspèndere | - Offenso - Suspeso/Suspenso | Italian |
| Verbs in -prímere | -prèsso | - Exprímere - Deprímere - Reprímere | - Exprèsso - Deprèsso - Reprèsso | Italian |
| Verbs in -vádere | -vaso | - Invádere - Evádere - Rádere | - Invaso - Evaso - Raso | Italian |
| Verbs in -parere | -parso | - Apparere - Desparere | - Apparso - Desparso | Italian |
| Chèrere | Chèsto | Rechèrere | Rechèsto | Italian |
| Verbs in -súmere | -sunto | - Assúmere - Presúmere | - Assunto - Presunto | Italian |
| Verbs in -struire | -ucto | - Construire - Destruire | - Constructo - Destructo | Italian (the regular ending -struito is more common in Romance languages) |
| Verbs in -flèctere | -flèxo | - Reflèctere - Deflèctere | - Reflèxo - Deflèxo | Italian |
| Verbs in -collîere | -colto | - Recollîere - Accollîere | - Recolto - Accolto | Italian |
| Verbs in -flígere | -flicto | - Inflígere - Afflígere | - Inflicto - Afflicto | Italian |
| Mòrdere | Mòrso | Italian | ||
| Nàscere | Nato | Italian | ||
| Dirígere | Dirècto | Italian | ||
| Discútere | Discusso | Italian | ||
| Remanere | Remasto | Italian | ||
| Còcere | Còtto | Italian | ||
| Ascóndere | Ascosto | Italian |
Èssere: Essuto or Estato?
The regular past participle for "èssere" is "essuto". However, Romance languages like Italian uses the past participle of the verb "stare" (Neolatin: estare), meaning "stato" ("estato") for "essere" ("èssere"). This means that Italian effectively uses the same past participle for two different verbs: "stato" as the past participle for both "essere" and "stare".
This logic extends into languages like French and Occitan. However, these languages are different because their cognates for "èssere" and "estare" have mostly merged into one verb. In any case, the irregular past participle "estato" for the verb "èssere" more closely resembles natural past participles in Italian, French and Occitan, despite being irregular.
This is especially important for the prominent use of "èssere" as a past participle along with "èssere" as an auxiliary verb in perfect compound tenses. For example: "Doos libros son estatos lèctos.", which means "Two books have been read". In contrast, languages like Spanish use only "havere" as its auxiliary verb and uses a more regular past participle. For example, the past participle of "ser" in Spanish is "sido".
Regular Past Participles in Groups
These past participles are regular, but are still important because they have their own groups.
| GROUP | PAST PARTICIPLE | VERBS IN SAME GROUP | RESPECTIVE PAST PARTICIPLES |
|---|---|---|---|
| Conóscere | Conoscîuto | Reconóscere | Rencoscîuto |
| Venire | Venito | Devenire | Devenito |
| Pètere | Petuto | - Repètere - Compètere | - Repetuto - Competuto |
17.4.4. Compound Tenses
The Present Perfect
The present perfect has several uses:
- Synonym for the Remote Past (only in Europe)
| Mangîai un pomo. / Hao mangîato un pomo. | I ate an apple. |
- Unfinished Actions in the Past
| Ancora non hai parlato con Luís. | I have not spoken to Luís yet. |
| Hai lècto quattro libros cuesto anno. | I have read four books this year. |
- Emphasis of the Occurrence of an Action Rather Than When It Happened
| Hai essuto occupato. | I have been busy. |
| Se ha tropato plus evidèntia. | More evidence has been found. |
- Life Experiences
| Jamàis hai viaggîato en Francia. | I have never traveled to France. |
The Past Perfect (Pluperfect)
The past perfect expresses an action completed in the past and preceding another action in the past.
| Quando arripai, ja se havevan partito. | When I arrived, they had already left. |
| Ella èra fatigata per que haveva studiato tota la nòcte. | She was tired because she had studied all night. |
17.4.5. Havere vs Èssere?
"Havere" and "èssere" are the auxiliary verbs that are used with perfect compound tenses. In accordance with the variation of Romance languages, Neolatin presents the option of differentiating between "havere" and "èssere" as they are used in French, Occitan and Italian (the "core" of Romance Europe).
The first idea to keep in mind is that the following:
- Havere: For transitive verbs, which are verbs that act on a direct object (ex: The boy kicks the ball.)
- Èssere: For intransitive verbs, which are verbs that do not act on a direct object (ex: I sleep.)
The second idea to keep in mind is the following major difference:
- Havere: Because it is used for transitive verbs, the past participle almost never agrees with the subject in terms of gender and quantity. More specifically, it is almost always singular and masculine.
- Èssere: Because it is used for intransitive verbs, the past participle must agree with the subject in terms of gender and quantity.
It is worth noting that this distinction is optional in Neolatin. If one finds it difficult to know when to use "havere" or "èssere", it is still valid to use only "havere". In fact, it may even be the best choice for communication, because it is much less likely that someone uses "havere" incorrectly.
As an example:
| Hai mangîato doos pomos. | I have eaten two apples. |
| Son succèssas moltas causas. | Many things have happened. |
Regarding "havere", why is the past participle "almost always" singular and masculine? This is because in French and Italian, when an unstressed direct object pronoun is used (in Neolatin, "lo", "la", "los", "las"), the past participle behaves as an adjective and agrees with the subject in gender and quantity.
| Marco? Lo hai visto hère. | Marco? I saw him yesterday. |
| Carla? La hai vista hère. | Carla? I saw her yesterday. |
| Marco et Carla? Los hai vistos hère. | Marco and Carla? I saw them yesterday. |
| Carla et Anna-Júlia? Las hai vistas hère. | Carla and Anna-Júlia? I saw them yesterday. |
This rule does not occur in other languages, like Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. Therefore, it is equally valid to always have the past participle as singular and masculine when used with the auxiliary verb "havere".
Uses of Havere
Use "havere" as the auxiliary verb when a direct object is involved.
| Pablo ha comprato un libro. | Pablo bought a book. |
Uses of Èssere
1. Reflexive Verbs
| Me so bannîato. | I bathed myself. |
| Me so preparato. | I prepared myself. |
| Me so esvellîato ad las sèpte de la mattina. | I woke up at seven in the morning. |
2. Verbs of State
| Devenire | To become |
| Restare | To stay / To remain |
| Remanere | To stay / To remain |
| Engrassare-se | To become fat |
| Engrassare-se | To become fat |
Examples:
| Marta èst restata ad casa. | Marta stayed home. |
| Me so engrassato. | I have gotten fat. |
| So veramente devenito un monstro? | Have I truly become a monster? |
3. Intransitive Verbs That Indicate an Action Experienced by the Subject
Certain intransitive verbs are experienced by the subject (nàscere, morire, créscere).
| So nato ad Roma. | I was born in Rome. |
| Èst mòrto face sèculos. | He died centuries ago. |
Curiously, only Italian uses "èssere" for the intransitive verb "créscere", whereas even French uses "havere" in that sense. Note also that these verbs alternatively use the simple past, and never use the auxiliary verb "havere". All other uses of "èssere" mentioned can also use "havere".
4. Verbs of Movement
| Mario èst entrato en la casa. | Mario has entered the house. |
| Son vadutos ad la banca. | They went to the bank. |
The following verbs are exceptions. These verbs must use "havere".
| Camminare | To walk |
| Natare | To swim |
| Córrere | To run |
| Viaggîare | To travel |
| Girare | To turn |
| Passejjare | To pass |
| Attraversare | To cross / To go through |
| Patinare | To skate |
| Schiare | To ski |
| Saltare | To jump |
5. Impersonal Verbs
| Se mangîa. ➜ Se èst mangîato. | It is eaten. ➜ It has been eaten. |
| Se observa. ➜ Se èst observato. | It is observed. ➜ It has been observed. |
| Son estatas factas tres còpias. / Se son factas tres còpias. | Three copies have been made. |
| Èst succèsso qualcausa de interessante. | Something interesting has happened. |
Further Notes
1. Weather
Regarding weather, most Romance languages use the auxiliary verb "havere".
| Ha plovuto. | It has rained. |
Italian uses both "èssere" ("essere") and "havere" ("avere").
2. Modal Verbs
The specified uses for each auxiliary verb still applies when used with modal verbs (potere, volere, devere).
| Elle èst potuto partire. | He was able to leave. |
Verbs That Use Both “Havere” and “Èssere”
Since "havere" is used for transitive verbs and "èssere" for intransitive verbs, there are cases where using a particular auxiliary verb with a verb gives a different meaning.
| VERB | TRANSLATION | INTRANSITIVE | TRANSITIVE |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ascèndere | To go up | Ella èst ascensa sopre lo treno. [She got on the train.] | Ella ha ascenso las escalas. [She went up the stairs.] |
| Descèndere | To go down | Ella èst descensa de lo treno. [She got off the train.] | Ella ha descenso las escalas. [She went down the stairs.] |
| Passare | To pass | - Èst passato tanto tèmpo. [So much time has passed.] - Elle èst passato per lo supermercato. [He passed by the supermarket.] | - Teodoro ha passato lo sale. [Teodoro passed the salt.] - Elle ha passato toto lo día ad lo parche. [He has spent the whole day at the park.] |
| Girare | To turn | Hai girato per la civtate. [I went around the city.] | - La tèrra ha girato entorno ad lo sole. [The Earth revolves around the sun.] - Ella ha girato la manillîa. [She turned the handle.] |
| Comentsare / Initiare | To begin / To start | La fèsta èst comentsata. [The party has started.] | Havemos comentsato la fèsta. [We started the party.] |
| Finire / Terminare | To finish / To end | La fèsta èst finita. [The party has ended.] | Havemos finito la fèsta. [We finished the party.] |
| Cambiare | To change | Lo mondo èst cambiato. [The world has changed.] | Lo descoprimènto ha cambiato lo mondo. [The discovery has changed the world.] |
| Mellîorare | To improve | La situatione èst mellîorata. [The situation improved.] | La ajjuta ha mellîorato la situatione. [The help improved the situation.] |
| Pejjorare | To worsen | La situatione èst pejjorata. [The situation got worse.] | Lo desastre ha pejjorato la situatione. [The disaster worsened the situation.] |
| Créscere | To grow / To raise | Ella èst crescîuta molto. [She grew a lot.] | Emilia ha crescîuto doos fillîos. [Emilia raised two children.] |
| Envellîare | To age | Lo hòmene èst envellîato molto. [The man aged a lot.] | Lo calore te ha envellîato. [The heat aged you.] |
| Aumentare | To increase | La velocitate èst aumentata. [The speed increased.] | Hai aumentato lo volume. [I increased the volume.] |
| Diminuire | To decrease | Lo volume èst diminuito. [The volume decreased.] | Hai diminuito lo volume. [I decreased the volume.] |