1.4. Segmental Phonology ✅
1.4.1. Phonemes Ordered by Manner of Articulation
Segmental phonology is a subfield of phonology that focuses on how phonemes (individual sound segments) make up spoken language. Some phonemes, depending on their position relative to other sound segments, may have allophones.
An allophone is a variant of a phoneme that occurs in specific phonetic contexts but does not change the meaning of the word. Because of the nature of allophones, which is to say, occurring in specific contexts and not changing the meaning of a word, many native speakers of a language may not perceive the existence of allophones.
This section explores consonants and their allophonic variations in a variety of contexts.
Nasals
The phoneme /m/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<m> | [m] Voiced bilabial nasal | - Amo - Mare - Samba - Vietnam | - [ˈa.mo] - [ˈma.ɾe] - [ˈsam.ba] - [ˈvjɛt.nam] |
The phoneme /ɲ/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<nî> | [ɲ] Voiced palatal nasal | - Nîam - Nîòcchi - Bannîo | - [ˈɲam] - [ˈɲɔk.ki] - [ˈbaɲ.ɲo] |
The phoneme /n/
Initial position of a syllable
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<n> | [n] Voiced alveolar nasal | - Naso - Qualcuno - Jorno | - [ˈna.so] - [kwalˈku.no] - [ˈʤoɾ.no] |
Final position of a syllable
| Phoneme + Allophones | When? | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
| [n] Voiced alveolar nasal | Before alveolar consonants: /r, l, t͡s, d͡z, s, z/ | - Sanremo - Panlatino - Dantsare - Prandzo - Ansia - Instituto - Constructione | - [sanˈrɛ.mo] - [pan.laˈt̪i.no] - [d̪anˈʦa.ɾe] - [ˈpran.ʣo] - [ˈan.sja] - [ins.t̪iˈt̪u.t̪o] - [kons.trukˈʦjo.ne] |
| [m] Voiced bilabial nasal | Before labial stops: /b, p/ | Orenburg / Oremburgo | [o.ɾemˈbuɾg] / [o.ɾemˈbuɾ.go] |
| [ɱ] Voiced labiodental nasal | Before labiodental fricatives: /f, v/ | - Ènfase - Sinfonía - Enviare - Investire - Inventare - Benvenito - Informatione - Gianfranco - Infinito - Influèntia | - [ˈɛɱ.fa.se] - [siɱ.foˈni.a] - [eɱ.viˈa.ɾe] / [eɱ.vja.ɾe] - [iɱ.vesˈt̪i.ɾe] - [iɱ.ven̪ˈt̪a.ɾe] - [beɱ.veˈni.t̪o] - [iɱ.foɾ.maˈʦjo.ne] - [ʤaɱˈfraɳ.ko] - [iɱ.fiˈni.t̪o] - [iɱ.fluˈɛn.ʦja] |
| [n̪] Voiced dental-alveolar nasal (More specifically: Laminal denti-alveolar) | Before dental stops /t, d/ | - Dènte - Cantare - Pònte - Quanto - Tanto - Indicare - Onde - Instante - Encanto - Comprèndo - Grande | - [ˈd̪ɛn̪.t̪e] - [kan̪ˈt̪a.ɾe] - [ˈpɔn̪.t̪e] - [ˈkwan̪.t̪o] - [ˈt̪an̪.t̪o] - [in̪.d̪iˈka.ɾe] - [ˈon̪.d̪e] - [insˈt̪an̪.t̪e] - [eŋˈkan̪.t̪o] - [komˈpɾɛn̪.d̪o] - [ˈgɾan̪.d̪e] |
| [ŋ] Voiced velar nasal | Before velar stops: /k, g/ | - Ancora - Giancarlo - Banca - Àngulo - Incredíbile - Lòngo | - [aɳˈko.ɾa] - [ʤaɳˈkar.lo] - [ˈbaɳ.ka] - [ˈaɳ.ɡu.lo] - [iɳ.kreˈd̪i.bi.le] - [ˈlɔɳ.ɡo] |
| [n̠] Voiced post-alveolar nasal Alternatively: [ɲ] Voiced palatal nasal | Before post-alveolar consonants (affricates and fricatives): /ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ, ʒ/ | - Àngelo - Mangîa - Romance - Encilada - Engennîèro | - [ˈan̠ʲ.d͡ʒe.lo] - [ˈman̠ʲ.d͡ʒa] - [roˈman̠ʲ.ʧe] - [en̠ʲ.ʧiˈla.d̪a] - [en̠ʲ.ʤeˈnɛ.ɾo] / [en̠ʲ.ʒeˈnɛ.ɾo] |
Stops/Occlusives
Voiceless Occlusives /p, t, k/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<p> | [p] Voiceless bilabial plosive | - Paese - Doplo - Coprire - Aprire | - [paˈe.se] - [ˈd̪o.plo] - [koˈpɾi.ɾe] - [aˈpɾi.ɾe] |
<t> | [t] Voiceless alveolar plosive | - Tarde - Gelato | - [ˈt̪aɾ.d̪e] - [ʤeˈla.t̪o] |
- <c> before <a, o, u>- <ch> before <e, i> | [k] Voiceless velar plosive | - Cane - Forchetta - Màchina - Con - Cubo | - [ˈka.ne] - [foɾˈket.t̪a] - [ˈma.ki.na] - [ˈkon] - [ˈku.bo] |
For Germanic speakers (English and German), do not aspirate these consonants at the beginning of words. This results in /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/ instead of /p, t, k/. In English, such a consonant is aspirated at the beginning of a word (ex: “top” [tʰɑp]). After another consonant, this sound is not aspirated (ex: “stop” [stɑp]). The variant of the sound without aspiration is the desired sound in Neolatin. To native Romance speakers, aspiration is very apparent.
Please note that, in Standard Neolatin, the sequences <che> and <chi> always represent [ke] and [ki] respectively. The sequences <que> and <qui> almost always represent [kwe] and [kwi]. For example, “questione” is pronounced [kwesˈt̪jo.ne] and “líquido” is pronounced [ˈli.kwi.d̪o].
The only exception to this rule are the following words: que [ke], qui [ki], quen [kɛn]. This also includes compound words containing these words, such as “qualque” [ˈkwal.ke].
However, an exception is words ending in -onque. To name some examples: “donque” [ˈd̪oɳ.kwe], “quionque” , “qualonque” [kwalˈoɳ.kwe] and “ovonque” [ovˈoɳ.kwe]. This is because -onque comes from the Latin adverb “umquam”. To force a pronunciation of [ke] is to either promote a false etymology (as if it were related to the Latin "quid") or generalize a spelling pronunciation that should not exist in Neolatin.
The sequences <que> and <qui> in Western Romance languages obtained their modern pronunciations of [ke] and [ki] when they originally evolved from Latin. Originally, in words with these sequences, they were pronounced as [kwe] and [kwi]. In specific words, such as “que” (inherited from Latin “quid”), they began to be pronounced with the semiconsonant [w], resulting in [ke] and [ki]. Because the pronunciation had evolved this way, this spelling was then generalized to new words, and even Latin borrowings.
For example, of the Romance languages that borrowed from the Latin word “quaestiōnem”, there are notable differences in spelling and pronunciation.
| Language | Word | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|
| Portuguese | questão | [kesˈtɐ̃ʊ̯̃] |
| Spanish | cuestión | [kwesˈt̪joŋ] |
| Catalan | qüestió | [kwəs.tiˈo] |
| French | question | [kɛsˈtjɔ̃] |
| Italian | questione | [kwesˈtjoːne] |
Sometimes a language alters the spelling to match the pronunciation of the borrowing (Catalan and Spanish). Some languages retain the spelling, but pronounce it differently according to a generalized rule (French and Portuguese).
The same applies for a word like the Latin borrowing “archīvum”. In this case, one form may follow the original pronunciation with an adapted spelling (Portuguese), one may be conservative (Italian) and others conserve the spelling, but use a different pronunciation (French and Spanish). For this word, only Italian conserves both the spelling and pronunciation of the Latin sequence <ch>.
| Language | Word | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|
| Portuguese | arquivo | [ahˈki.vu] |
| Spanish | archivo | [aɾˈt͡ʃi.β̞o] |
| Catalan | arxiu | [əɾˈʃiw] |
| French | archives | [aʁˈʃiv] |
| Italian | archivio | [aɾˈki.vjo] |
Voiced Occlusives /b, d, g/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<b> | [b] Voiced bilabial plosive | - Banana - Sabla - Oblitare - Prohibire | - [baˈna.na] - [ˈsa.bla] - [o.bliˈt̪a.ɾe] - [projˈbi.ɾe] |
<d> | [d] Voiced alveolar plosive | - Día - Donque - Secondo - Audire - Crédere - Possedere - Confidare | - [ˈd̪i.a] - [ˈd̪oɳ.kwe] - [seˈkon̪.d̪o] - [awˈd̪i.ɾe] - [ˈkre.d̪e.ɾe] - [pos.seˈd̪e.ɾe] - [koɱ.fiˈd̪a.re] |
- <g> before <a, o, u>- <gh> before <e, i> | [g] Voiced velar plosive | - Gallina - Portughese - Borghi - Gomma - Figura | - [ɡalˈli.na] - [poɾ.tuˈɡe.se] - [ˈboɾ.ɡi] - [ˈɡom.ma] - [fiˈɡu.ɾa] |
Please note that the sequences <ghe> and <ghi> represent [ge] and [gi] respectively. In turn, the sequences <gue> and <gui> represent [gwe] and [gwi]. As a couple of examples: "guèrra" [ˈɡwɛ.ra] and "guida" [ˈɡwi.d̪a].
The phonemes above also have regional counterparts in an intervocalic position in the form of approximants. These allophones notably appear in Spanish.
| Grapheme | Allophone | Example | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<b> between vowels | [β] Voiceless bilabial fricative | Cubo | ['ku.bo] / ['ku.βo] |
<d> between vowels | [ð] Voiced dental fricative | Grado | ['gra.d̪o] / ['gra.ðo] |
- <g> before <a, o, u>- <gh> before <e, i> | [ɣ̞] Voiced velar fricative | Logo | [ˈlo.ɡo] / [ˈlo.ɣ̞o] |
Affricates
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
- <ts>- <ti> as [ʦj] before a vowel, but not after <s> | [ʦ] Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate | - Comentsare - Frequèntia - Initiare - Gratias - Natione - Pronuntiatione - Prèttso - Pizza | - [ko.menˈʦa.ɾe] - [freˈkwɛn.ʦja] - [i.nitˈʦja.ɾe] - [ɡrat.ʦjas] - [natˈʦjo.ne] - [pro.nun.ʦjatˈʦjo.ne] - [ˈprɛt.ʦo] - [ˈpitˈʦa] |
- <dz>- <zz> | [ʣ] Voiced alveolar sibilant affricate | - Verdza - Prandzo - Organizzare - Utilizzare | - ['veɾ.ʣa] - [ˈpran.ʣo] - [or.ɡa.nidˈd͡za.ɾe] - [u.ti.lidˈd͡za.ɾe] |
- <cî> before <a, o/ò, u>- <c> before <e/è, i> | [ʧ] Voiceless postalveolar affricate | - Marcîa - Felice - Cinque - Cîocolate - Cîu cîu - Edificio | - [ˈmaɾ.tʃa] - [feˈli.ʧe] - [ˈʧiɳ.kwe] - [ʧo.koˈla.t̪e] - [ʧuˈʧu] - [e.d̪iˈfi.ʧo] / [e.d̪iˈfi.ʧi.o] |
- <j>- <gî> before <a, o/ò, u>- <g> before <e/è, i> | [ʤ] Voiced postalveolar affricate | - Ja - Gènte - Lègere - Viagge | - [ˈʤa] - [ˈʤɛn̪.t̪e] - [ˈlɛ.ʤe.ɾe] - [viˈad.ʤe] |
The voiced postalveolar fricative /ʒ/ exists as a regional pronunciation for the simple graphemes of <j> and <g>.
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<j> (Regional pronunciation: Portuguese, Catalan, French, Romanian in some cases) | [ʒ] Voiced postalveolar fricative | - Ja - Gènte | - [ˈʤa] / [ˈʒa] - [ˈʤɛn̪.t̪e] / [ˈʒɛn̪.t̪e] |
Fricatives
The labio-dental fricatives /f/ and /v/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<f> | [f] Voiceless labiodental fricative | - Fine - Caffè | - [ˈfi.ne] - [kafˈfɛ] |
<v> | [v] Voiced labiodental fricative | - Voce - Vita - Vocale - Venire - Vídeo - Provare - Cavallo - Escrívere - Servire - Invitare - Govèrno | - [ˈvo.ʧe] - [ˈvi.t̪a] - [voˈka.le] - [veˈni.ɾe] - [ˈvi.d̪e.o] - [proˈva.ɾe] - [kaˈval.lo] - [esˈkri.ve.ɾe] - [serˈvi.ɾe] - [iɱ.viˈt̪a.ɾe] - [ɡoˈvɛɾ.no] |
Betacism?
Betacism is a sound change where the pronunciation of the phonemes [b] and [v] are confused.
Originally, in Latin, the graph <b> was pronounced as a voiced bilabial plosive [b], while the graph <v> was pronounced as the voiced labial-velar approximant [w]. At this time, the letter <w> did not exist yet.
The pronunciation of <v> came to be a voiced bilabial approximant [β] in Proto-Romance. In most Romance languages, this progressed to a voiced labiodental fricative [v]. In most of Iberia, Sardinia, parts of Southern France and probably Africa, it remained as the approximant [β].
Due to lenition (the weakening of the pronunciation of consonants), <b> went from being pronounced as the voiced bilabial plosive [b] to the voiced labial approximant [β] between vowels. Because both <b> and <v> arrived at a similar pronunciation, the spelling of <v> also began to take on the same pronunciation that <b> had at the beginning of a word, that is, a voiced bilabial plosive [b]. In this manner, both <b> and <v> lost their phonemic distinction, thus completing the merger.
Both <b> and <v> now represented a voiced labial plosive [b] at the beginning of a word and the voiced bilabial approximant [β] between vowels.
This is seen in some modern Romance languages: dialects of Portuguese in Northern Portugal, dialects of Occitan, dialects of Catalan, and most prominently, Spanish.
| Grapheme | Latin | Proto-Romance | Certain Languages (Spanish + dialects of Portuguese, Catalan, Occitan) | Neolatin |
|---|---|---|---|---|
<b> | [b] Voiced bilabial plosive | [b] Voiced bilabial plosive | - [b] Voiced bilabial plosive (Beginning of a word) - [β]Voiced bilabial approximant (Between vowels) | [b] Voiced bilabial plosive |
<v> | [w] Voiced labial-velar approximant | [β] Voiced bilabial approximant | - [b] Voiced bilabial plosive (Beginning of a word) - [β]Voiced bilabial approximant (Between vowels) | [v] Voiced labiodental fricative |
In the case of Spanish, unlike the majority of other Romance languages, the pronunciation of [v] never existed historically. In modern Spanish, some speakers pronounce the letters <b> and <v> in a distinct manner due to influence from other languages, such as certain indigenous languages of the Americas, Catalan and languages of Italy due to historical migration in countries like Argentina.
The phoneme [v] sometimes exists, according to the individual, out of an erroneous desire to seem more correct (the distinction never existed historically in Spanish) or to distinguish between the letters <b> and <v> in writing more easily.
Betacism exists to some degree at the level of words in some Romance languages, like in languages of southern Italy (ex: “vocca” in Neapolitan from Latin “bucca”, “bbolari” in Sicilian from Latin “volō” or “volāre”) and Romanian (ex: “bătrân” from Latin “veterānus”). However, not to the same extent as Spanish, where the letters <b> and <v> are completely interchangeable and the phoneme [v] does not exist.
In general, the majority of modern Romance languages distinguish between the letters <b> and <v>, both graphically and phonemically. In practice, if a speaker treats <b> and <v> as interchangeable, it is likely that his or her native language is a Romance language of Iberia, such as Spanish. Although dialects of Occitan have betacism similar to Spanish, nowadays this is less of a factor because virtually all these speakers also speak French, which does indeed distinguish between <b> and <v> phonemically.
For the purposes of representing Romance languages as best as possible and avoiding misunderstandings, the strict differentiation between the letters <b> and <v> is recommended in Neolatin.
The alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/
| Grapheme | Phoneme + Allophone | When? | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|---|
<s> | [s] Voiceless alveolar fricative | At the beginning of a syllable | - Naso - Sole | - [ˈna.so] - [ˈso.le] |
<s> | [z] Voiced alveolar fricative | - Between vowels (regional pronunciation: Portuguese, Catalan, French, varieties of Italian) - Before a voiced consonant: /b, d, g, m, v, n, ʤ/ - Before liquid consonants: /ɾ, l/ | - Naso - Costoso - Silentioso - Música - Presènte - Museo - Quasi - Positivo - Bàsico - Caso - Mesmo - Erasmo - Esmeralda - Fresno - Desblòchejjare - Desdennîo - Dès de - Desgratia - Desvanire - Disjúngere - Desradicare - Dislocare - Òslo | - [ˈna.so] / [ˈna.zo] - [kosˈt̪o.so] / [kosˈt̪o.zo] - [si.lenˈʦjo.so] / [si.lenˈʦjo.zo] - [ˈmu.si.ka] / [ˈmu.zi.ka] - [preˈsɛn̪.t̪e] / [preˈzɛn̪.t̪e] - [muˈse.o] / [muˈze.o] - [ˈkwa.si] / [ˈkwa.zi] - [po.siˈt̪i.vo] / [po.ziˈt̪i.vo] - [ˈba.si.ko] / [ˈba.zi.ko] - [ˈka.so] / [ˈka.zo] - [ˈmez.mo] - [eˈɾaz.mo] - [ez.meˈɾal̪.d̪a] - [ˈfɾez.no] - [d̪ez.blo.kedˈʤa.ɾe] - [d̪ezˈdeɲ.ɲo] - [ˈd̪ɛz.de] - [d̪ezˈɡɾat.t͡sja] - [d̪ezˈva.ni.ɾe] - [d̪izˈʤun.ʤe.re] - [d̪ez.ra.diˈka.re] - [d̪iz.loˈka.re] / [d̪is.loˈka.re] - [ˈɔz.lo] / [ˈɔs.lo] |
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<z> | [z] Voiced alveolar fricative Alternatively, as an affricate: [ʣ] Voiced alveolar affricate | - Zèro - Zebra | - [ˈzɛ.ɾo] / [ˈʣɛ.ɾo] - [ˈze.bɾa] / [ˈʣe.bɾa] |
The post-alveolar fricative /ʃ/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<sî> | [ʃ] Voiceless postalveolar fricative | - Cerèsîa - Lisîo | - [ʧeˈrɛʃ.ʃa] - [ˈliʃ.ʃo] |
Approximants
A semivowel is a type of approximant that is produced like a vowel (loose approximation of the articulations and no audible friction) but that functions as a consonant. To be more precise, a boundary for syllables, be it at the front, the back or both. The two main semivowels in Neolatin are [j] and [w].
For information about the approximants /β, ð, ɣ/, consult the subsection “Occlusives”.
Rhotics (Also known as "vibrants")
Initial position of a syllable
| Grapheme | Phoneme | When? | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|---|
- <r> at the beginning of a syllable- <rr> between vowels | [r] Voiced alveolar trill | - Beginning of a word - Between vowels - After another alveolar consonant: /n, l, z/ | - Rosso - Ràpido - Reale - Tèrra - Enrico - Sanremo - Israele | - [ˈros.so] - [ˈra.pi.d̪o] - [reˈa.le] - [ˈt̪ɛ.ra] - [enˈri.ko] - [sanˈrɛ.mo] - [iz.raˈɛ.le] |
Final position of a syllable
| Grapheme | Phoneme | When? | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|---|
<r> | [ɾ] Voiced alveolar tap | - After vowels - In the following sequences: <br>, <fr>, <pr>, <vr>, <gr>, <cr>, <dr> and <tr> | - Arte - Verde - Qatar - Braccîo - Fratre - Primo - Grado - Tigre - Crédere - Dragone - Matre | - [ˈaɾ.t̪e] - [ˈveɾ.d̪e] - [kaˈt̪aɾ] - [ˈbɾat.ʧo] - [ˈfɾa.t̪ɾe] - [ˈpɾi.mo] - [ˈɡɾa.d̪o] - [ˈt̪i.ɡɾe] - [ˈkɾe.d̪e.ɾe] - [d̪raˈgo.ne] - [ˈma.t̪ɾe] |
Laterals
The phoneme /l/
Initial position of a syllable
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<l> | [l] Voiced alveolar lateral approximant | - Lècto - Male | - [ˈlɛk.t̪o] - [ˈma.le] |
Final position of a syllable
| Phoneme + Allophones | When? | Examples | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
| [l] Voiced alveolar lateral approximant | - Before alveolar consonants /s, z, t͡s, d͡z/ - In the following sequences: <bl>, <fl>, <pl>, <vl>, <gl>, <cl> | - Falso - Altsare - Blanco - Flore - Plato - Globo - Clamare | - [ˈfal.so] - [alˈʦa.ɾe] - [ˈblaɳ.ko] - [ˈflo.ɾe] - [ˈpla.t̪o] - [ˈglo.bo] - [klaˈma.ɾe] |
| [l̪] Voiced dental lateral approximant | Before dental consonants /t, d/ | - Alto - Adulto - Molto - Caldo - Consultare | - [ˈal̪.t̪o] - [aˈd̪ul̪.t̪o] - [ˈmol̪.t̪o] - [ˈkal̪.d̪o] - [kon.sul̪ˈt̪a.ɾe] |
| [l̠ʲ] Voiced palatalized alveolar lateral approximant | Before post-aleovolar consonants /ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/ | - Alcèlafo - Dolce - Àlgebra | - [alʲˈt͡ʃɛ.la.fo] - [ˈd̪olʲ.t͡ʃe] - [ˈalʲ.ʤe.bɾa] |
| [ʎ] Voiced palatal lateral approximant | /l/ before the semiconsonant [j] (OPTIONAL) | - Aliante | [aˈʎan̪.t̪e] / [aˈljan̪.t̪e] / [a.liˈan̪.t̪e] |
The phoneme /ʎ/
| Grapheme | Phoneme | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<lî> | [ʎ] Voiced palatal lateral approximant | - Lîama - Fillîa - Consellîo | - [ˈʎa.ma] - [ˈfiʎ.ʎa] - [konˈseʎ.ʎo] |
1.4.2. Consonant Clusters
Consonant Simplification
In Neolatin, the following clusters of three or four consonants have two possible pronunciations: a conservative pronunciation (complete) and a simplified pronunciation, where each of the occlusive consonants may fall: [p, t, k, b, d]. This happens in loanwords from Latin.
The first consonant falls
| Sequence | IPA Transcription | Examples | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<xp> | [(k)s.p] | expansione | [eks.panˈsjo.ne] / [es.panˈsjo.ne] |
<xt> | [(k)s.t] | extèrno | [eksˈt̪ɛɾ.no] / [esˈt̪ɛɾ.no] |
<xk> | [(k)s.k] | excursione | [eks.kuɾˈsjo.ne] / [es.kuɾˈsjo.ne] |
<xc> + e / i | [(k)s.ʧ] | excellènte | [eks.t͡ʃelˈlɛn̪.t̪e] / [ek.t͡ʃelˈlɛn̪.t̪e] |
<xs> | [(k)s.s] | exsístere | [eks.sisˈt̪e.ɾe] / [es.sisˈt̪e.ɾe] |
<bst> | [(b)s.t] | abstinèntia | [abs.t̪iˈnɛn.ʦja] / [as.t̪iˈnɛn.ʦja] |
<bsc> | [(b)s.k] | obscuritate | [ob.sku.ɾiˈt̪a.t̪e] / [os.ku.ɾiˈt̪a.t̪e] |
<bsc> + e / i | [(b)s.ʧ] | obscèno | [obˈsʧɛ.no] / [osˈʧɛ.no] |
<dscr> | [(d)s.kɾ] | adscriptione | [ads.kɾipˈt͡sjo.ne] / [as.kɾipˈt͡sjo.ne] |
<dstr> | [(d)s.tɾ] | adstringènte | [ads.tɾiˈd͡ʒɛn̪.t̪e] / [as.tɾiˈd͡ʒɛn̪.t̪e] |
The middle consonant falls
| Sequence | IPA Transcription | Examples | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<rpti> + vowel | [ɾ(p)ˈt͡sj] | absorptione | [ab.soɾpˈt͡sjo.ne] / [ab.soɾˈt͡sjo.ne] |
<lpt> | [l(p).t] | sculptore | [skulpˈt̪o.ɾe] / [skulˈt̪o.ɾe] |
<mpt> | [m(p).t] | redemptione | [re.d̪empˈt͡sjo.ne] / [re.d̪emˈt͡sjo.ne] |
<stm> / <sthm> | [s(t).m] | astma (var. asthma) | [ˈast.ma] / [ˈast.ma] |
<nx> | [ɳk.s] / [n.s] | anxioso | [aɳkˈsjo.so] / [anˈsjo.so] |
<xs> | [k(s).s] | exsístere | [eks.sisˈt̪e.ɾe] / [ek.sisˈt̪e.ɾe] |
<nct> | [n(k).t] | conjunctivo | [kon̠ʲ.d͡ʒuɳkˈt̪i.vo] / [kon̠ʲ.d͡ʒun̪ˈt̪i.vo] |
Consonant Assimilation
In Neolatin, the following groups of two consonants have two possible pronunciations: a conservative pronunciation and the other with regressive assimilation, where the second consonant assimilates the first. This is possible both in inherited words and loanwords from Latin.
| Sequence | IPA Transcription | Example(s) | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<pt> | [p.t] / [t.t] | - sèpte - helicòptero | - [ˈsɛp.t̪e] / [ˈsɛt.t̪e] - [e.liˈkɔp.t̪e.ɾo] / [e.liˈkɔt.t̪e.ɾo] |
<bt> | [b.t] / [t.t] | - sobto - obtenere | - [ˈsob.t̪o] / [ˈsot.t̪o] - [ob.t̪eˈne.ɾe] / [ot.t̪eˈne.ɾe] |
<ct> | [k.t] / [t.t] | - lacte - actuale | - [ˈlak.t̪e] / [ˈlat.t̪e] - [akˈt̪wa.le] / [atˈt̪wa.le] |
<vt> | [v.t] / [t.t] | civtate (< civetate) | [ʧivˈt̪a.t̪e] / [ʧitˈt̪a.t̪e] |
<bd> | [b.d] / [d.d] | abdòmene | [abˈd̪ɔ.me.ne] / [adˈd̪ɔ.me.ne] |
<gd> | [g.d] / [d.d] | - fregdo (< frégedo) - amígdala | - [fɾed͡ʒ.do] / [fɾed.d̪o] - [aˈmiɡ.d̪a.la] / [aˈmid.d̪a.la] |
<bv> | [b.v] / [v.v] | obviare | [obˈvja.ɾe] / [ovˈvja.ɾe] |
<dv> | [d.v] / [v.v] | advèrbio (var. avvèrbio) | [adˈvɛɾ.bjo] / [avˈvɛɾ.bjo] |
<tl> | [t.l] / [l.l] | - espatla (var. espàtola) - atlèta | - [esˈpat.la] / [esˈpal.la] - [aˈtlɛ.t̪a] / [aˈtlɛ.t̪a] |
<bm> | [b.m] / [m.m] | submissione | [sub.misˈsjo.ne] / [sum.misˈsjo.ne] |
<dm> | [d.m] / [m.m] | administrare (var. amministrare) | [ad.mi.niˈstra.ɾe] / [am.mi.niˈstra.ɾe] |
<dn> | [d.n] / [n.n] | adnotare (var. annotare) | [ad.noˈt̪a.ɾe] / [an.noˈt̪a.ɾe] |
<mn> | [m.n] / [n.n] | - dòmna - gimnasio | - [ˈdɔm.na] / [ˈdɔn.na] - [d͡ʒimˈna.sjo] / [d͡ʒinˈna.sjo] |
<br> | [b.ɾ] / [r] | subrogare | [sub.ɾoˈɡa.ɾe] / [su.roˈɡa.ɾe] |
<ps> | [p.s] / [s.s] | - capsa - lapso | - [ˈkap.sa] / [ˈkas.sa] - [ˈlap.so] / [ˈlas.so] |
<x> | [k.s] / [s.s] | - còxa - exèmplo | - [ˈkɔk.sa] / [ˈkɔs.sa] - [ekˈsɛm.plo] / [esˈsɛm.plo] |
<bs> | [b.s] / [s.s] | absènte | [abˈsɛn̪.t̪e] / [asˈsɛn̪.t̪e] |
<rs> | [ɾ.s] / [s.s] | - orso - univèrso | - [ˈoɾ.so] / [ˈos.so] - [u.niˈvɛɾ.so] / [u.niˈvɛs.so] |
<cti> + vowel | [kˈʦj] / [tˈʦj] | actione | [akˈt͡sjo.ne] / [atˈt͡sjo.ne] |
<pti> + vowel | [pˈʦj] / [tˈʦj] | optione | [opˈt͡sjo.ne] / [otˈt͡sjo.ne] |
<cc> | [k.ʧ] / [t.ʧ] | - accèndere - accidènte | - [akˈt͡ʃɛn.de.ɾe] / [atˈt͡ʃɛn.de.ɾe] - [ak.t͡ʃiˈdɛn̪.t̪e] / [at.t͡ʃiˈdɛn̪.t̪e] |
<bj> | [b.ʤ] / [d.ʤ] | - sobjogare - objècto | - [sob.d͡ʒoˈɡa.ɾe] / [sod.d͡ʒoˈɡa.ɾe] - [obˈd͡ʒɛk.to] / [odˈd͡ʒɛt.to] |
There is no regressive assimilation in other consonant clusters, like <st> visto,
<sc> discòrdia, <lt> altitúdine, <mp> límpido, <mf> triumfo, <nt> documènto, <nc>
provincia, <nd> càndido, <ng> angina, <nv> convèxo., <ns> ascensione, etc.
1.4.3. Geminated Consonants
Between vowels, the consonants below are always geminated. However, their pronunciation is not always a duplication of the same phoneme.
| Sequence | IPA Transcription | Example | IPA Transcription |
|---|---|---|---|
<ccî> | /tʧ/ | faccîa | [ˈfat.ʧa] |
<jj>, <gg> | /dʤ/ | - hòjje - correggîa | [ˈɔd.ʤe] - [koˈred.ʤa] |
<llî> | /ʎʎ/ | fillîa | [ˈfiʎ.ʎa] |
<nnî> | /ɲɲ/ | pinnîa | [ˈpiɲ.ɲa] |
<tts> | /tʦ/ | plattsa | [ˈplat.ʦa] |
Some consonants are generally double, but are simple in loanwords (ex: “lîama” from Spanish “llama” compared to the inherited word “allîo”).
1.4.4. Regional Pronunciations
-
Spirantization of [b, d, g] between vowels (Portuguese, Spanish and Catalan):
- cúbico ['kuːbiko] / ['kuːβiko]
- caduco [ka'duːko] / [ka'ðuːko]
- castigare [kasti'gaːɾe] / [kasti'ɣaːɾe]
-
Deaffrication of [ʤ] (Portuguese, Catalan, French, and some cases in Romanian):
- lege ['leːʤe] / ['leːʒe]
- fugîa ['fuːʤa] / ['fuːʒa]
- ja [ʤa] / [ʒa]
-
Aspiration of
<h>, imitating cognates or the spelling (Romanian):- hippòdromo [ip'poːdɾo.mo] / [hip'poːdɾo.mo]
-
Dispalatalization of [ʎ, ɲ]:
- lîama ['ʎaːma] / ['ljaːma] (compare. Spanish, French, Romanian)
- nîam! ['ɲam] / ['njam] (Romanian)
-
Duplication of initial [ɾ] (Portuguese, Spanish and Catalan):
- ròsa ['ɾɔːsa] / ['rɔːsa]
-
Change of articulation of [r] (Portuguese and French):
- tèrra ['tɛ.ra] / ['tɛ.Ra]
-
Sonorization of intervocalic [s], imitating cognates or the spelling (Portuguese, Catalan, French and some cases in Italian):
- rosa ['roːsa] / ['roːza]
-
Dispalatalization and deaffrication of [ʧ] (> [ʦ] > [s]), imitating cognates or the spelling (Portuguese, Catalan, French):
- cena ['ʧe.na] / ['se.na]
-
Simplification of double consonants (Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, French, Romanian):
- gruppo ['gɾup.po] / ['gɾu.po]
-
Elimination of syntactic gemination (Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, French, Romanian):
- ad vós [av'vos] / [a'vos]